Non-Maleficence — NDEB AFK MCQ
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Correct answer: D — Non-maleficence
Non-maleficence (primum non nocere — 'first, do no harm') is violated when a healthcare provider exposes a patient to unnecessary risk without clinical justification. Ionising radiation carries stochastic risks (cancer) and should only be used when the diagnostic benefit outweighs the risk (ALARA principle). Taking radiographs without clinical indication provides no benefit while exposing the patient to avoidable harm.
Reference: Beauchamp & Childress – Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 8th ed., 2019; White & Pharoah – Oral Radiology, 8th ed., 2019